[2] Julian P. Alexander, “Philosophy of Punishment,”
Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law & Criminology 13 (1922): 235.
[4] For example, the Prophet ﷺ said, “Verily, the most lightly punished of the people of Hellfire on the Day of Resurrection is a man under whose feet are two hot coals that cause his brain to boil.”
Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, the book on heart softeners, the chapter on descriptions of paradise and hellfire.
[5] Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawzīyah,
Hādī al-arwāḥ ilá bilād al-afrāḥ (Amman: Dar al-Fikr, 1987).
[9] This has been attributed to Ibn ʿAbbās, Ubayy ibn Kaʿb, Ḥasan al-Baṣrī, Ibrāhīm al-Nakhaʿī, al-Ḍaḥḥāk, ʿAlqamah, Mujāhid, Qatādah, and many others. The other interpretation is that the nearer punishment refers to punishment in the grave.
[11] Helen Y. Weng, Andrew S. Fox, Heather C. Hessenthaler, Diane E. Stodola, and Richard J. Davidson, “The Role of Compassion in Altruistic Helping and Punishment Behavior,”
PloS One 10, no. 12 (2015); Ernst Fehr and Simon Gächter, “Altruistic Punishment in Humans,”
Nature 415, no. 6868 (2002): 137–40.
[12] Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, the book of character, the chapter on mercy and affection to children.
[13] Ibn al-Qayyim,
Hādī al-arwāḥ.
[14] Burrhus F. Skinner, “Operant Behavior,”
American Psychologist 18, no. 8 (1963): 503.
[15] Negative reinforcement occurs when something present (e.g., bad deeds in our record) is removed as a result of a person's behavior, creating a desirable outcome for that person.
[16] An example of this is the hadith of the Prophet ﷺ, “Whoever purifies himself in his house, then walks to one of the houses of Allah to perform one of the duties enjoined by Allah, for every two steps he takes, one will erase a sin and the other will raise him one degree in status.”
Saḥīḥ Muslim, the book on
masjids and places of prayer, the chapter on walking to the
masjid erasing sins and elevating one’s rank.
[19] Al-ʿIzz ibn ʿAbd al-Salām,
Trials and Tribulations (Birmingham, UK: Dar al-Sunnah, 2004).
[20] Not all afflictions are compassionate reprimands. They may also simply be tests meant to elevate the rank of an already righteous individual and to demonstrate how to deal with difficulties. The afflictions that Prophet Ayūb dealt with are an example of nonreprimanding afflictions.
[21] The Prophet ﷺ said, “No hardship, illness, anxiety, grief, harm, or distress—not even the pricking of a thorn—afflicts a Muslim but that Allah will expiate some of his sins by it.”
Saḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, the book of drinks, the chapter on what has come pertaining to expiation of sickness.
[23] Saḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, the book of medicine, the chapter on reward for patience during the plague.
[24] Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī,
Fatḥ al-Bārī (Riyadh: Maktaba Al-Salafiyah, 2008).
[25] The largest categories of respondents were 25–34 (34%), held bachelor’s degrees (39%), and were South Asian (56%). Females comprised 73% of the sample, and 69% of the sample reported praying five times a day.
[26] We first ran a hierarchical agglomerative clustering algorithm (Ward’s method) to determine the best cluster solution. K-means clustering was subsequently performed to fine-tune cluster homogeneity by reassigning cases to the optimal cluster.
[27] Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, the book of virtues of the companions, the chapter on the merits of Omar.
[28] Sunan Abī Dāwūd, no. 5097.
[29] Sunan al-Tirmidhī, the book and chapter on descriptions of the day of judgment, heart softeners, and cautiousness.
[32] Don E. Davis, Elise Choe, Joel Meyers, Nathaniel G. Wade, Kristen Varjas, Allison Gifford, Amy Quinn, Joshua Hook, Daryl R. Van Tongeren, Brandon J. Griffin, and Everett L. Worthington, “Thankful for the Little Things: A Meta-Analysis of Gratitude Interventions,”
Journal of Counseling Psychology 63, no. 1 (2016): 20.
[33] The Prophet ﷺ said, “Whoever does not thank people has not thanked Allah.”
Sunan Abī Dāwūd, the book of character, the chapter on being grateful for goodness.
[36] Sunan Abī Dāwūd, the book of seeking forgiveness.
[37] S
unan al-Tirmidhī, the book of zakāt, hadīth 664.
[38] Saḥīḥ Muslim, the book of purification, the chapter on the virtues of ablution.
[39] Ibn Ḥibbān, no. 653.
[40] Ibn al-Athīr,
Usud al-ghābah fī maʿrifat al-ṣaḥābah (Beirut: Dar Ibn Hazm, 2012).
[41] The historian, Ibn ‘Asākir, wrote these lines of poetry about the plague of ʿAmwās. “How many brave horsemen and beautiful, chaste women were killed in the valley of ʿAmwās. They had encountered the Lord, but He was not unjust to them. When they died, they were among the non-aggrieved people in Paradise. We endure the plague as the Lord knows, and we were consoled in the hour of death.” Michael W. Dols, “Plague in Early Islamic History,”
Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1974, 371–83.
[43] Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, no. 5653.
[44] Al-Ṭabarānī, the book of
du’a. See the complete
du’a here.