Perhambaan dan Islam: Apakah Perhambaan?
Masalah dalam menafsirkan Perhambaan \ˈslā-v(ə-)rē\ (slavery)
Bagaimana Kita Melihat Perhambaan– Perhambaan ‘Kambing’ Amerika
Spektrum Tenaga Buruh
Takrifan yang tidak pernah berfungsi
Perhambaan dalam Islam– Sebuah Persoalan Politikal
Kesimpulan: Fokus pada Keadaan, bukan Perkataan
[1] Tradisi perhambaan elit Uthmaniyyah mungkin telah diwarisi dari Empayar Rom dan Byzantine Empayar, di mana hamba imperial (selalunya sida) mampu berpangkat tinggi dalam tentera dan pentadbiran; Youval Rotman, Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World, terjemahan Jane Marie Todd (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 104; Cam Grey, “Slavery in the Late Roman World,” in The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume I The Ancient Mediterranean World, ed. Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 499.
[2] Pamela Kyle Crossley, “Slavery in Early Modern China,” in The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3 AD 1420-1804, ed. David Eltis and Stanley Engerman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 200.
[3] Christoph K. Neumann, “Whom did Ahmet Cevdet represent?,” in Late Ottoman Society, ed. Elisabeth Özdalga, 117-134. London: Routledge, 2005), 117.
[4] David Brion Davis, Challenging the Boundaries of Slavery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 17-18.
[5] Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 22.
[6] Grey, “Slavery in the Late Roman World,” 496; Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, 174-76.
[7] Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, 22.
[8] Crossley, “Slavery in Early Modern China,” 191.
[9] Julia O’Connell Davidson, Modern Slavery: The Margins of Freedom (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 162.
[10] Crossley, “Slavery in Early Modern China,” 187.
[11] Vaughan Lowe, International Law: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 1.
[12] Dipetik dari Youval Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, 19.
[13] Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, 17-18.
[14] Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, 97-98.
[15] Joseph C. Miller, The Problem of Slavery as History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 12.
[16] David Eltis dan Stanley Engerman, “Dependence, Servility, and Coerced Labor in Time and Space,” dalam The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3, 3.
[17] Richard Hellie, “Russian Slavery and Serfdom, 1450-1804,” dalam The Cambridge World History of Slavery Vol. 3, 276-77.
[18] Cam Grey, “Slavery in the Late Roman World,” 484-6.
[19] Hellie, “Russian Slavery,” 284, 292-93.
[20] Eltis dan Engerman, “Dependence, Servility, and Coerced Labor,” 7; Davidson, Modern Slavery, 68. Di England isu ini dikendalikan oleh Statute of Artificers, yang mana telah diambil sedikit sebanyak oleh koloni-koloni Amerika.
[21] Kerry Ward, “Slavery in Southeast Asia, 1420-1804,” dalam The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3, 165-66.
[22] Eltis and Engerman, “Dependence, Servility, and Coerced Labor,” 6.
[23] Kenneth Morgan, Slavery and Servitude in Colonial North America (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 8-9, 20; David Galenson, “The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis,” Journal of Economic History 44, no. 1 (1984): 4.
[24] Ia adalah dalam kepentingan kerajaan Uthmaniyah untuk mengekalkan kestabilan sistem pertanian; Y. Hakan Erdem, Slavery in the Ottoman Empire and its Demise, 1800-1909 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 12-13, 15.
[25] Stanley Engerman, “Slavery at Different Times and Places,” American Historical Review 105, n. 2 (2000): 481
[26] Crossley, “Slavery in Early Modern China,” 189.
[27] Hellie, “Russian Slavery,” 284, 293.
[28] Hellie, “Russian Slavery,” 279-80. Penulis menyatakan terdapat persamaan antara kontrak Rusia ini dengan budaya Parsi purba yang dikenali sebagai antichrisis (seperti yang dinamakan oleh penulis-penulis Yunani).
[29] Crossley, “Slavery in Early Modern China,” 191.
[30] Ward, “Slavery in Southeast Asia,” 171.
[31] Lawrence M. Friedman, A History of American Law, 2nd ed. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985), 225.
[32] W.W. Buckland, The Roman Law of Slavery (New York: AMS, 1969, reprint of 1908 Cambridge U. Press edition), 2-3.
[33] Yan Thomas, “Vitae Necisque Potestas: Le Père, La Cité, La Mort,” Publications de l’École Française de Rome (1984): 499–548.
[34] Buckland, The Roman Law of Slavery, 36-8.
[35] Kenneth Morgan, Slavery and Servitude in Colonial North America, 35, 77; Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1998), 116; Paul Finkelman, “Slavery: United States Law,” dalam Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History, 5:258-262; Friedman, A History of American Law, 225-6.
[36] David Brion Davis, Slavery and Human Progress (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 8.
[37] Ehud Toledano, Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998), 164-65; Toledano, As if Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in the Islamic Middle East (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 21.
[38] Rujuk Nur Sobers-Khan, Slaves without Shackles: Forced Labour and Manumission in the Galata Court Registers, 1560-1572 (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 2014).
[39] Martin Klein, “Introduction,” dalam Breaking the Chains: Slavery, Bondage, and Emancipation in Modern Africa and Asia, ed. Martin Klein (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 4-5.
[40] Rodney Coates, “Slavery” dalam Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, ed. George Ritzer (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007).
[41] A. Testart, “The Extent and Significance of Debt Slavery,” Revue Française de Sociologie 43 (2002): 176.
[42] Davis, Slavery and Human Progress, 17-19; Brenda Stevenson, What is Slavery? (Malden, MA: Polity, 2015), 8.
[43] Claude Meillassoux, The Anthropology of Slavery (London: Athlone, 1991).
[44] Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 7-8, 13.
[45] Nasser Rabbat, “The Changing Concept of the Mamlūk in the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt and Syria,” dalam Slave Elites in the Middle East and Africa, ed. Miura Toru dan John Edward Philips (London: Kegal Paul, 2000), 89, 97.
[46] Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, 104.
[47] Rujuk Ali Yaycıoğlu, “Wealth, Power and Death: Capital Accumulation and Imperial Seizures in the Ottoman Empire (1453-1839)” di http://www.econ.yale.edu/~egcenter/Yaycioglu%20-%20Wealth%20Death%20and%20Power%20-%20November%202012.pdf.
[48] Leslie Pierce, Morality Tales: Law and Gender in the Ottoman Court of Aintab (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 315; Toledano, As if Silent and Absent, 25; Ebru Boyar dan Kate Fleet, A Social History of Ottoman Istanbul (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 147-48.
[49] Dror Ze’evi, “My Slave, My Son, My Lord: Slavery, Family and the State in the Islamic Middle East,” dalam Slave Elites in the Middle East and Africa, 75. Rujuk artikel Metin Kunt, “Ethnic-Regional (Cins) Solidarity in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Establishment,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 5, no. 3 (1974): 233-39.
[50] Veinstein, G., “Soḳollu Meḥmed Pas̲h̲a”, dalam: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Dirujuk atas talian pada 21 November 2016 <http://dx.doi.org.proxy.library.georgetown.edu/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7090> Pertama kali diterbitkan atas talian: 2012
[51] Daniel Crecelius dan Gotcha Djaparidze, “Relations of the Georgian Mamluks of Egypt with Their Homeland in the Last Decades of the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of the Social and Economic History of the Orient 45, no. 3 (2002): 326.
[52] Christine E. Sears, “‘In Algiers, the City of Bondage’: Urban Slavery in Comparative Context,” dalam New Directions in Slavery Studies, ed. Jeff Forret and Christine E. Sears (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2015), 203, 207, 211.
[53] Julia O’Connell Davidson, Modern Slavery: The Margins of Freedom (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 3, 6, 22-23, 37-39, 69, 169.
[54] Davidson, Modern Slavery, 100
[55] William Clarence-Smith dan David Eltis, “White Servitude,” 139, 144.
[56] thestar.co.uk/news/majority-of-rotherham-child-exploitation-suspects-are-white-claims-new-report-1-739263
[57] Davidson, Modern Slavery, 33.
[58] Davidson, Modern Slavery, 32.
[59] Kevin Bales, Understanding Global Slavery (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 52-54.